Table 1 Studies of choline intake in European and non-European countries released after 2015

Adults

Redruello-Requejo et al., (2021), Spain [27]

ANIBES, cross-sectional

Female, 18–30 years

Female, 31–45 years

251

390

DR x3, September to November 2013

USDA choline database

292 (236–363), median (interquartile range)

312 (256–378.), median (interquartile range)

Meat and meat products, eggs, milk and dairy products, cereals and derivatives,

Rossi et al., (2023), Italy [66]

Case-control

Females and males

4154

FFQ, 1994–1996

USDA choline database and other available databases

401 (135), mean (SD)

Meat, cereals, poultry, eggs, vegetables, fruits and fish

Karlsson et al. (2024), Sweden [54]

Västerbotten Intervention Programme, cohort

Females

Males

52 246

50 485

semi-FFQ, 1996

USDA choline database

255 (48.6), mean (SD)

278 (55.4), mean (SD)

Not identified

Van Parys et al., (2022), Norway [28]

Hordaland Health

Study (HUSK), cross-sectional

Female, elderly

Male, elderly

Female, middle-aged

Male, middle-aged

1539

1247

1700

1260

FFQ, 1997–1999

USDA choline database

266 (189, 382) geometric mean (95% PI)

258 (167, 390) geometric mean (95% PI)

258 (176, 380) geometric mean (95% PI)

256 (154, 402) geometric mean (95% PI)

eggs, low-fat milk, potatoes, leafy vegetables

Van Parys et al. (2021), Norway [17]

Western Norway B Vitamin Intervention Trial (WENBIT), patients with stable angina pectoris

Female, adult

Male, adult

390

1539

FFQ, 1999–2004

USDA choline database

294 (216, 435), geometric mean (95% PI)

285 (178, 439), geometric mean (95% PI)

Fish, dairy, vegetables, eggs, meat

Muzsik-Kazimierska et al. (2022), Poland [26]

Case-control study

Postmenopausal female with HSI < 36

Postmenopausal female with HSI > 36

54

63

DR x3, 2016–2018

USDA choline database

239 (75), mean (SD)

284 (205), mean (SD)

Not identified

Mlodzik-Czyzewska et al. (2022), Poland [18]

Case-control study

Female, 20–40 years

Male, 20–40 years

207

214

DR x3, 2016–2018

USDA choline database

376 (148), mean (SD)

519 (280), mean (SD)

Eggs, poultry, pork

Malinowska et al. (2017), Poland [24]

Secondary analysis of clinical trial outcomes (short-term folic acid supplementation)

Female, elderly

122

FFQ, 2013

USDA choline database

392 (26), mean (SD)

Not identified

Qasrawi et al. (2024), Palestine [58]

Cross-sectional

Females

755

24 h DR x3, 2021

Eastern Mediterranean Region Food Information Data Bank

136 (65) mean (SE)

Not identified

López-Carrillo et al. (2016), Mexico [23]

Cross-sectional

Female, > 20 years

1027

FFQ, 2007–2011

Data not provided

263 (105), mean (SD)

Not identified

Probst et al. (2019), Australia [36]

National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (NNPAS), Australian Health Survey

Female, 19–64 years

Male, 19–64 years

3640

3372

Dietary recall, 2 days, 2011–2013

Australian choline database based on USDA choline database and other studies

248 (2), mean (SE)

311 (2), mean (SE)

Eggs, dairy milk (cow, sheep and coat) unprocessed and processed meat

Gao et al. (2016), Canada [21]

Complex Disease in Newfoundland population: Environment and Genetics (CODING) study, cross-sectional

Female, normal BMI, adult

Male, normal BMI, adult

1021

234

Willet FFQ, 2003–2015

NutriBase Clinical Nutrition Manager (v. 8.2.0; Cybersoft, Phoenix, AZ)

299 (221), mean (SD)

423 (327) mean (SD)

Not identified

Cheng et al. (2017), Taiwan [16]

Cross-sectional

Male > 20 years

Female > 20 years

321

227

qFFQ, 2002–2009

USDA choline database and other analytical reports

284 (145), mean (SD)

230 (120), mean (SD)

Not identified

Golzarand et al. (2022), Iran [22]

Tehran Lipid and Glucose

Study, cohort

Female, male, adults

2606

FFQ, 2006–2008

USDA choline database

226 (223–228), geometric mean (95% PI)

Meat, grains and bakery products, dairy products

Wallace (2016), USA [19]

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), cross-sectional

Female, 19–30 years

Male, 19–30 years

1170

1096

Dietary recall, 2 days, 2008–2012

USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference

250 (5), mean (SE)

387 (7), mean (SE)

Not identified

Wallace (2017), USA [20]

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), cross-sectional

Female, 19–30 years

Male, 19–30 years

1586

1702

Dietary recall, 2 days, 2005–2014

USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference

257 (4), mean (SE)

392 (5), mean (SE)

Eggs, meat, poultry

Millard et al. (2018), USA [25]

Jackson Hearth Study (JHS)

African-American females, 21–94 years

African-American males, 21–94 years

2613

1311

FFQ, 2000–2004

USDA food content databases

278 (126), mean (SD)

357 (147), mean (SD

Non-fried eggs, fried fish, corn bread or muffins, fried beef, whole milk

Freedman et al. (2024), USA [56]

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), cross-sectional

Males

Females

2365

2498

24 h DR, 2017–2018

USDA Food and Nutrient Database for

Dietary Studies

385 (4), mean (SE)

280 (7), mean (SE)

Not identified

Zhou et al. (2023), USA [63]

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), cross-sectional

Females and males aged > 20 years old

14 323

24 h DR x2, 2011–2016

USDA Food and Nutrient Database for

Dietary Studies

317 (164), mean (SE)

Not identified

Sheyn et al. (2024) [64], USA

Nurses Health Study I

Nurses Health Study II

Females

8318

9 684

FFQ, 1980

FFQ, 1991

USDA choline database

USDA choline database

304 (28) mean (SD)

312 (32) mean (SD)

Not identified

Zhang et al. (2024) [65], USA

NHANES

Females and males aged ≥40 years

660

Dietary recall, 2 days, 2013–2014

Food and Nutrient Database for Dietary

Studies

218, mean

Not identified

Pregnant women

Pauwels et al. (2017), Belgium [33]

The Maternal Nutrition and Offspring’s Epigenome (MANOE) study, observational cohort study

Pregnancy, first trimester

94

FFQ, April 2012 - March 2016

USDA choline database

274 (7), mean (SE)

Not identified

Roeren et al. (2022), Germany [13]

Cross-sectional

Pregnancy

273

FFQ, November and December 2021

USDA choline database

260 ± 141, median

eggs, red meat, white meat for omnivores

eggs, green kale and fruit juices for vegetarians/vegans

Moore et al. (2020), United Kingdom [35]

The Be Healthy in Pregnancy (BHIP) study, baseline data of RCT

Pregnancy

232

DR x3, 2012–2018

Canada choline database

338 (120, 1016), median (min, max)

Meat and fish, eggs, milk and alternatives, vegetables and fruits

Chmurzynska et al. (2018), Poland [34]

Cross-sectional

Pregnancy, third trimester

74

FFQ, 2016

USDA choline database

365 (14), mean (SD)

Eggs, poultry

Staskova et al. (2023), Australia [60]

Barwon Infant Study, cohort

Pregnancy

236

Dietary Questionnaire for Epidemiological Studies Version 2, 2010–2013

USDA choline database

372 (104), mean (SD)

Dairy, eggs, bakery, vegetables, beef, chicken and turkey

Robb et al. (2023), South Africa [59]

The Nuemi Study, cross-sectional

Pregnancy

682

qFFQ, 2018–2019

USDA choline database

275 (85–387), mean (interquartile range)

Not identified

Wiedeman et al. (2024), Canada [61]

CHILD, cohort

Pregnancy

2996

Semi-FFQ, 2009–2012

USDA choline database

375 (151), mean (SD)

Not identified

Probst et al. (2019), Australia [36]

National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (NNPAS), Australian Health Survey

Pregnancy

116

Dietary recall, 2 days, 2011–2013

Australian choline database based on USDA choline database and other studies

253 (10), mean (SE)

Eggs, dairy milk (cow, sheep and coat) unprocessed and processed meat

Christifano et al. (2022), USA [32]

Cross-sectional

Pregnancy, 32 week

202

DHQ-II Diet History Questionnaire II

Diet*Calc analysis software

275 (138), mean (SD)

Not identified

Agarwal (2024), USA [55]

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), cross-sectional

Pregnancy and lactation

319

24 h DR, 2011–2018

USDA Food and Nutrient Database for

Dietary Studies

314 (9), mean (SE)

Not identified

Olendzki et al. (2023) [57], USA

Case-control

Pregnant females with IBD

Pregnant females without IBD

88

82

24 h dietary recall, January 2019- December 2022

USDA choline database

360 (146) mean (SD)

354 (129) mean (SD)

Not identified

Children and adolescents

Prelicz (2017), Romania [31]

Cross-sectional

Boys, 4–6 years

Girls, 4–6 years

34

37

DR x3, September–October 2011

USDA choline database

214 ± 26, mean ± SD

215 ± 37, mean ± SD

Meat (mainly poultry), eggs, grains, cereals, baked products, dairy products

Probst et al. (2019), Australia [36]

National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey (NNPAS), Australian Health Survey

Children, 2–3 years

464

Dietary recall, 2 days, 2011–2013

Australian choline database based on USDA choline database and other studies

185 (3), mean (SE)

Eggs, dairy milk (cow, sheep and coat) unprocessed and processed meat

Jafari et al. (2021), Iran [29]

Cross-sectional

Girls, 6 years

788

FFQ, 2017–2018

USDA food content databases

263 (137), mean (SE)

Not identified

Wallace (2016), USA [19]

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), cross-sectional

Girls, 2–3 years

Boys, 2–3 years

485

471

Dietary recall, 2 days, 2008–2012

USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference

216 (6), mean (SE)

241 (7), mean (SE)

Not identified

Wallace (2017), USA [20]

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), cross-sectional

Girls, 2–3 years

Boys, 2–3 years

658

658

Dietary recall, 2 days, 2005–2014

USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference

201 (4), mean (SE)

246 (5), mean (SE)

Eggs, meat, poultry

Zhang et al. (2024), USA [62]

National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), cross-sectional

Children and adolescents aged 2–17 years old

4715

24 h DR, 2015–2018

USDA Food and Nutrient Database

for Dietary Studies

248 (3), mean (SE)

Not identified