Association of the use of nonfood prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics with total and cause-specific mortality: a prospective cohort study

Table 2 Hazard ratios (95% CIs) of mortality with prebiotic, probiotic, and synbiotic use in NHANES 1999–2018

Cause of death		Nonusers of nonfood prebiotic, probiotic, or synbiotic	Users of nonfood prebiotic, probiotic, or synbiotic	P value
All causes
	Number of deaths/total	9028/52,485	89/848
	Model 1*	1.00	0.30 (0.22 to 0.41)	< 0.001
	Model 2†	1.00	0.38 (0.28 to 0.52)	< 0.001
	Model 3‡	1.00	0.41 (0.30 to 0.56)	< 0.001
Heart diseases
	Number of deaths	2364	25
	Model 1*	1.00	0.29 (0.17 to 0.49)	< 0.001
	Model 2†	1.00	0.40 (0.24 to 0.67)	< 0.001
	Model 3‡	1.00	0.44 (0.26 to 0.74)	0.002
Cancer
	Number of deaths	1964	28
	Model 1*	1.00	0.42 (0.26 to 0.68)	< 0.001
	Model 2†	1.00	0.49 (0.30 to 0.80)	0.004
	Model 3‡	1.00	0.51 (0.31 to 0.83)	0.007
Other cause
	Number of deaths	4700	36
	Model 1*	1.00	0.26 (0.16 to 0.42)	< 0.001
	Model 2†	1.00	0.34 (0.21 to 0.54)	< 0.001
	Model 3‡	1.00	0.36 (0.23 to 0.59)	< 0.001

Complex survey designs are considered for all estimates.
*Model 1: adjusted for age, sex, and race/ethnicity.
†Model 2: further adjusted (from Model 1) for education level, marital status, family income-poverty ratio, smoking and drinking status, body mass index, physical activity level, family history of diabetes and heart attack, self-reported general health, healthy eating index scores, self-reported chronic diseases (diabetes, hypertension, congestive heart disease, chronic kidney disease).
‡Model 3: further adjusted (from Model 2) for fiber and yogurt consumption.
Abbreviation: CI, confident interval

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