Fig. 1

Schedule of the 5W Study. 5W Study, Who, What, When, Where, and Why for Healthy Eating Study; CNBQ, Chrono-Nutrition Behavior Questionnaire; MDHQ, Meal-based Diet History Questionnaire. For the questionnaire-based analysis, we used the CNBQ to assess chrononutriton behaviors and the MDHQ to assess diet quality and energy intake misreporting. For the diary-based analysis, we used 11-day diaries of eating (consisting of 7-day diaries of food timing and 4-day diaries of food intake) to assess chrononutrition behaviors and 4-day diaries of food intake to assess diet quality and energy intake misreporting. In the present analysis, data derived from the 3rd questionnaire (i.e., eating motivation, depressive symptoms, perceived stress, and food insecurity) were not used