Chrononutrition behaviors in relation to diet quality and obesity: do dietary assessment methods and energy intake misreporting matter?

Murakami, Kentaro; Shinozaki, Nana; Livingstone, M. Barbara E.; McCaffrey, Tracy A.; Masayasu, Shizuko; Sasaki, Satoshi

doi:10.1186/s12937-025-01129-1

Table 3 Chrononutrition behavior variables according to energy intake reporting status^a

From: Chrononutrition behaviors in relation to diet quality and obesity: do dietary assessment methods and energy intake misreporting matter?

	Questionnaire-based analysis^b				Diary-based analysis^c
	All (n = 1047) ^d	Under- Reporting (n = 461)	Acceptable reporting (n = 573)	P^e	All (n = 1047)^d	Under- reporting (n = 149)	Acceptable reporting (n = 883)	P^e
Workdays
Meal frequency (number/day)	2.78 ± 0.45	2.66 ± 0.54	2.88 ± 0.33	< 0.0001	2.77 ± 0.39	2.54 ± 0.46	2.81 ± 0.39	< 0.0001
Snack frequency (number/day)	1.21 ± 0.98	0.96 ± 0.91	1.38 ± 0.99	< 0.0001	0.99 ± 0.90	0.51 ± 0.57	1.07 ± 0.90	< 0.0001
Daily total eating frequency (number/day)	3.99 ± 1.13	3.62 ± 1.08	4.26 ± 1.07	< 0.0001	3.77 ± 1.02	3.04 ± 0.75	3.88 ± 1.02	< 0.0001
Timing of first eating occasion (clock time; decimal)	8.06 ± 2.45	8.73 ± 2.98	7.54 ± 1.76	< 0.0001	8.06 ± 2.17	9.23 ± 2.62	7.87 ± 2.17	< 0.0001
Timing of last eating occasion (clock time; decimal)	20.37 ± 1.72	20.35 ± 1.79	20.38 ± 1.67	0.80	20.10 ± 1.24	19.90 ± 1.18	20.13 ± 1.24	0.04
Duration of eating window (hours; decimal)	12.31 ± 2.78	11.62 ± 3.17	12.84 ± 2.30	< 0.0001	12.03 ± 2.31	10.67 ± 2.66	12.26 ± 2.31	< 0.0001
Eating midpoint (clock time; decimal)	14.21 ± 1.59	14.54 ± 1.88	13.96 ± 1.27	< 0.0001	14.08 ± 1.34	14.56 ± 1.53	14.00 ± 1.34	< 0.0001
Non-workdays
Meal frequency (number/day)	2.73 ± 0.48	2.61 ± 0.54	2.82 ± 0.41	< 0.0001	2.70 ± 0.41	2.39 ± 0.49	2.75 ± 0.41	< 0.0001
Snack frequency (number/day)	1.26 ± 1.01	0.98 ± 0.95	1.47 ± 1.00	< 0.0001	1.06 ± 0.82	0.57 ± 0.55	1.13 ± 0.82	< 0.0001
Daily total eating frequency (number/day)	3.99 ± 1.16	3.59 ± 1.09	4.29 ± 1.12	< 0.0001	3.76 ± 0.99	2.97 ± 0.75	3.87 ± 0.99	< 0.0001
Timing of first eating occasion (clock time; decimal)	9.11 ± 2.18	9.64 ± 2.40	8.71 ± 1.90	< 0.0001	9.05 ± 1.96	10.23 ± 2.40	8.86 ± 1.96	< 0.0001
Timing of last eating occasion (clock time; decimal)	19.81 ± 1.62	19.76 ± 1.67	19.84 ± 1.59	0.39	19.61 ± 1.19	19.36 ± 1.27	19.65 ± 1.19	0.01
Duration of eating window (hours; decimal)	10.69 ± 2.51	10.12 ± 2.66	11.13 ± 2.28	< 0.0001	10.56 ± 2.05	9.12 ± 2.52	10.79 ± 2.05	< 0.0001
Eating midpoint (clock time; decimal)	14.46 ± 1.46	14.70 ± 1.58	14.28 ± 1.33	< 0.0001	14.33 ± 1.25	14.79 ± 1.45	14.25 ± 1.25	< 0.0001
Eating jetlag based on eating midpoint (hours; decimal)	0.89 ± 1.00	1.06 ± 1.17	0.75 ± 0.82	< 0.0001	0.77 ± 0.73	1.02 ± 0.89	0.72 ± 0.73	< 0.0001

^aValues are means ± standard deviations. Energy intake reporting status was determined using the ratio of reported energy intake (derived from either the Meal-based Diet History Questionnaire or 4-day weighed food diaries) to estimated basal metabolic rate, taking into account physical activity level at the individual level [54, 87]. Meals included breakfast, lunch, and dinner. All time-related variables are shown in decimal format, with the unit of clock time; decimal (e.g., 8.06 means 8:04 AM, while 20.37 means 8:22 PM) or hours; decimal (e.g., 12.31 means a duration of 12 h 19 min)
^bChrononutrition behavior variables were assessed using the Chrono-Nutrition Behavior Questionnaire; reported energy intake was derived from the Meal-based Diet History Questionnaire
^cChrononutrition behavior variables were assessed using the 11-day diaries of eating; reported energy intake was derived from the 4-day weighed food diaries
^dIncluding overreporters (n = 13 for questionnaire-based analysis and n = 15 for diary-based analysis)
^eBased on the independent t-test

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